Junk Food Consumption and Child Health in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan: A Cross-Sectional Econometric Analysis with Agricultural and Food Policy Implications
The impact of junk food on child’s health
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.66529/agripat.2026.2.4.112Abstract
Rising consumption of energy-dense, nutrient-poor junk food among Pakistani children is increasing public health risks and contributing to the burden of undernutrition and overnutrition. Evidence on behavioral and socioeconomic factors influencing junk food consumption in Pakistan remains limited, particularly its connection with agricultural and food-systems policy. This study examines associations between junk food consumption, media and advertising exposure, parental nutritional awareness, and caregiver-reported health outcomes among children aged 3–14 years in Swabi District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Using primary data from 100 caregivers recruited through convenience sampling at a single clinic, Probit and Logit models were estimated for a binary health-outcome indicator based on caregiver-reported overweight/obesity, dental problems, or persistent fatigue. Model diagnostics indicated adequate fit and specification. Frequent junk food consumption, defined as more than three times weekly, was associated with a 27.6 percentage-point higher probability of health issues (p<0.01). Each additional junk food advertisement viewed increased this probability by 7.4 percentage points (p<0.05), while higher parental nutritional awareness reduced it by 13.1 percentage points (p<0.05). Urban residence was not significant. Given the cross-sectional, single-site, convenience-sampled design, findings represent associations rather than causal effects. Policy implications include healthier school food environments, responsible marketing, nutrition-sensitive agriculture, healthy food value chains, and nutrition education.
References
Ahmed, F., Malik, N. I., Bashir, S., Noureen, N., Ahmad, J. B., & Tang, K. (2024). Political economy of maternal child malnutrition: Experiences about water, food, and nutrition policies in Pakistan. Nutrients, 16(16), 2642. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16162642 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16162642
Ataullahjan, A., Keats, E. C., Habib, M. A., Islam, M., Confreda, E., Somaskandan, A., ... & Bhutta, Z. A. (2025). Social sector drivers and stunting reduction in Pakistan: A subnational analysis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 121, S78–S85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajcnut.2024.09.025
Basit, A., Ahmedani, M. Y., Riaz, M., Memon, R. A., & Soomro, M. (Eds.). (2023). BIDE's diabetes desk book: For healthcare professionals. Elsevier.
Carducci, B. (2022). The relationship between food environments and nutritional status of school-aged children and adolescents in low- and middle-income countries: Evidence from Pakistan (Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto, Canada).
Ch, L. D., Bharath, Y., Bliznashka, L., Kumar T., V., Jonnala, V., Chekka, V., Yebushi, S., Roy, A., Srinivasapura Venkateshmurthy, N., Prabhakaran, P., & Jaacks, L. M. (2024). Evidence of potential impacts of a nutrition-sensitive agroecology program in Andhra Pradesh, India, on dietary diversity, nutritional status, and child development. PLOS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286356 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286356
Drope, J., & Powell, L. M. (2024). Using fiscal policy to promote health: A five-year update on taxing tobacco, alcohol and sugar-sweetened beverages.
Falak, F., Ahmad, A. M. R., Mahmood, H., Malik, Z. I., Shah, S. H. B. U., Abid, J., & Irfan, M. (2025). Diet quality and its associated factors among adolescents in high schools of Rawalpindi and Islamabad. Frontiers in Public Health, 13, 1651903. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2025.1651903 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2025.1651903
Global Nutrition Report. (2022). 2022 Global Nutrition Report: Stronger commitments for greater action. Development Initiatives Poverty Research Ltd. https://globalnutritionreport.org/reports/2022-global-nutrition-report/
Government of Pakistan, Ministry of National Health Services, Regulations and Coordination, Aga Khan University, & UNICEF. (2019). National Nutrition Survey 2018: Key findings report. https://www.unicef.org/pakistan/reports/national-nutrition-survey-2018-key-findings-report
Grant, F. K. E., Amunga, D., Mulwa, C. K., Moyo, M., Kwikiriza, N., Malit, J., Mwaura, L., Maru, J., & Heck, S. (2025). Nutrition-sensitive agricultural interventions and maternal and child nutrition outcomes in arid and semi-arid lands of Kenya. Frontiers in Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2025.1465650 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2025.1465650
Hemmingsson, E. (2018). Early childhood obesity risk factors: Socioeconomic adversity, family dysfunction, offspring distress, and junk food self-medication. Current Obesity Reports, 7, 204–209. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-018-0310-2
High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition (HLPE). (2017). Nutrition and food systems. Committee on World Food Security, FAO.
Hossain, M. J., & Simi, R. A. F. (2024). Transformation for sustainable and nutrition sensitive food systems in Bangladesh: Current status and future strategies. In Accelerating the Process of Transformation for Sustainable and Nutrition Sensitive Agri-Food Systems in South Asia (p. 12).
McLeroy, K. R., Bibeau, D., Steckler, A., & Glanz, K. (1988). An ecological perspective on health promotion programs. Health Education Quarterly, 15(4), 351–377. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/109019818801500401
Nguyen, P. H., Neupane, S., Pant, A., Avula, R., & Herforth, A. (2024). Diet quality among mothers and children in India: Roles of social and behavior change communication and nutrition-sensitive social protection programs. The Journal of Nutrition, 154(9), 2784–2794. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tjnut.2024.07.026
Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA). (2002). PEMRA Ordinance.
Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA). (2020). Electronic Media (Programmes and Advertisements) Code of Conduct, 2015.
Popkin, B. M. (1998). The nutrition transition and its health implications in lower-income countries. Public Health Nutrition, 1(1), 5–21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1079/PHN19980004
Punjab Food Authority. (2017). Punjab Educational Institutions Food Regulations, 2017. Government of Punjab. https://pfa.gop.pk/
Ramić, L. (2024). Taxing sweets: Sugar tax as an instrument in achieving SDG 3 — potential headache for developing countries? In Interaction of Law and Economics: Sustainable Development (p. 193). DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/9788367405331-022
Shahid, A., Saeed, M. S., Kanwal, A., & Shahid, S. (2022). Frequency of overweight and obesity and its associated factors amongst school children in Lahore Pakistan. Proceedings S.Z.M.C., 36(4). https://doi.org/10.47489/pszmc8573643136 DOI: https://doi.org/10.47489/pszmc8573643136
Tanveer, M., Asghar, E., Tanveer, U., Roy, N., Zeba, A., Al-Mhanna, S. B., Ma, X., & Batrakoulis, A. (2024). Association of nutrition behavior and food intake with overweight and obesity among school-aged children and adolescents in Pakistan: A cross-sectional study. AIMS Public Health, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2024040 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2024040
UN Network for SUN (UNSDG). (2024). Sowing the seeds of better nutrition in Pakistan. United Nations Sustainable Development Group. https://unsdg.un.org/latest/stories/sowing-seeds-better-nutrition-pakistan
UN Network for SUN. (2025). Homegrown school feeding for sustainable food systems: Pakistan case study.
World Health Organization. (2023). Saturated fatty acid and trans-fatty acid intake for adults and children: WHO guideline. World Health Organization.
Zafar, N., et al. (2021). Dental caries in relation to sugar consumption among children: A study from Southern Punjab, Pakistan. Biomedica, 37(2), 110–113. DOI: https://doi.org/10.51441/BioMedica/5-273
Additional Files
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Authors retain the copyright of their published work and grant the journal the right of first publication.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
All articles published in AgriPaT are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
